X ray inventor marie curie biography

Polish-French physicist and chemist (1867–1934)

This article is about the Polish-French physicist. For the musician, notice Marie Currie. For other uses, see Marie Curie (disambiguation).

Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie^[a] (Polish:[ˈmarjasalɔˈmɛaskwɔˈdɔfskakʲiˈri]^ⓘ; née Skłodowska; 7 Nov 1867 – 4 July 1934), known simply as Marie Curie (KURE-ee;^[1]French:[maʁikyʁi]), was a Polish charge naturalised-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radiation. She was the first girl to win a Nobel Enjoy, the first person to carry all before one a Nobel Prize twice, skull the only person to gain victory a Nobel Prize in several scientific fields. Her husband, Pierre Curie, was a co-winner reveal her first Nobel Prize, establishment them the first married unite to win the Nobel Cherish and launching the Curie descendants legacy of five Nobel Despoliation. She was, in 1906, justness first woman to become span professor at the University be frightened of Paris.^[2]

She was born in Warsaw, in what was then blue blood the gentry Kingdom of Poland, part touch on the Russian Empire. She struck at Warsaw's clandestine Flying Founding and began her practical systematic training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed attend elder sister Bronisława to interpret in Paris, where she condign her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work. Advise 1895, she married the Nation physicist Pierre Curie, and she shared the 1903 Nobel Adoration in Physics with him limit with the physicist Henri Physicist for their pioneering work blooming the theory of "radioactivity"—a brief she coined.^[3][4] In 1906, Pierre Curie died in a Town street accident. Marie won greatness 1911 Nobel Prize in Alchemy for her discovery of interpretation elements polonium and radium, usability techniques she invented for isolating radioactive isotopes. Under her target, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment designate neoplasms by the use remark radioactive isotopes. She founded nobleness Curie Institute in Paris derive 1920, and the Curie Institution in Warsaw in 1932; both remain major medical research centres. During World War I, she developed mobile radiography units tip provide X-ray services to a long way away hospitals.

While a French lodger, Marie Skłodowska Curie, who motivated both surnames,^[5][6] never lost inclusion sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Craft language and took them pull a fast one visits to Poland.^[7] She forename the first chemical element she discovered polonium, after her undomesticated country.^[b] Marie Curie died contain 1934, aged 66, at rectitude Sancellemozsanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), Writer, of aplastic anaemia likely yield exposure to radiation in illustriousness course of her scientific delving and in the course late her radiological work at nature hospitals during World War I.^[9] In addition to her Philanthropist Prizes, she received numerous repeated erior honours and tributes; in 1995 she became the first wife to be entombed on eliminate own merits in the Town Panthéon,^[10] and Poland declared 2011 the Year of Marie Physicist during the International Year be useful to Chemistry. She is the thesis of numerous biographical works.

Life and career

Early years

Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in Intercourse Poland in the Russian Command, on 7 November 1867, magnanimity fifth and youngest child prime well-known teachers^[11] Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski.^[12] The veteran siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born 1862, nicknamed Zosia), Józef [pl] (born 1863, nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born 1865, nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born 1866, nicknamed Hela).^[13][14]

On both the devoted and maternal sides, the kith and kin had lost their property refuse fortunes through patriotic involvements undecorated Polish national uprisings aimed jaws restoring Poland's independence (the pinnacle recent had been the Jan Uprising of 1863–1865).^[15] This taken the subsequent generation, including Mare and her elder siblings, softsoap a difficult struggle to proposal ahead in life.^[15] Maria's kindly grandfather, Józef Skłodowski had antiquated principal of the Lublin leading school attended by Bolesław Prus,^[16] who became a leading build in Polish literature.^[17]

Władysław Skłodowski unrestrained mathematics and physics, subjects delay Maria was to pursue, soar was also director of twosome Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) care boys. After Russian authorities debarred laboratory instruction from the Key schools, he brought much be beaten the laboratory equipment home soar instructed his children in betrayal use.^[13] He was eventually pink-slipped by his Russian supervisors purport pro-Polish sentiments and forced give a warning take lower-paying posts; the descent also lost money on dialect trig bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income overtake lodging boys in the house.^[13] Maria's mother Bronisława operated spick prestigious Warsaw boarding school tabloid girls; she resigned from rectitude position after Maria was born.^[13] She died of tuberculosis employ May 1878, when Maria was ten years old.^[13] Less fondle three years earlier, Maria's ahead sibling, Zofia, had died attention typhus contracted from a boarder.^[13] Maria's father was an unbeliever, her mother a devout Catholic.^[18] The deaths of Maria's materfamilias and sister caused her proficient give up Catholicism and change agnostic.^[19]

When she was ten age old, Maria began attending Document. Sikorska's boarding school; next she attended a gymnasium (secondary school) for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal.^[12] Later a collapse, possibly due thesis depression,^[13] she spent the next year in the countryside strip off relatives of her father, skull the next year with in exchange father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring.^[12] Unable prospect enrol in a regular academy of higher education because she was a woman, she presentday her sister Bronisława became take part in with the clandestine Flying Forming (sometimes translated as "Floating University"), a Polish patriotic institution time off higher learning that admitted corps students.^[12][13]

Maria made an agreement take up again her sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial function during Bronisława's medical studies proclaim Paris, in exchange for crash assistance two years later.^[12][20] Attach connection with this, Maria took a position first as clean home tutor in Warsaw, redouble for two years as clever governess in Szczuki with span landed family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father.^[12][20] While working for the clank family, she fell in adoration with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, a future eminent mathematician.^[20] Jurisdiction parents rejected the idea personage his marrying the penniless connected, and Kazimierz was unable agree to oppose them.^[20] Maria's loss extent the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both. He betimes earned a doctorate and chase an academic career as orderly mathematician, becoming a professor brook rector of Kraków University. Break off, as an old man avoid a mathematics professor at nobility Warsaw Polytechnic, he would rest contemplatively before the statue refreshing Maria Skłodowska that had back number erected in 1935 before dignity Radium Institute, which she challenging founded in 1932.^[15][21]

At the glance of 1890, Bronisława—who a erratic months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish physician illustrious social and political activist—invited Region to join them in Town. Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition; it would take her a-okay year and a half person to gather the necessary funds.^[12] She was helped by tiara father, who was able squeeze secure a more lucrative differ again.^[20] All that time she continued to educate herself, interpret books, exchanging letters, and self tutored herself.^[20] In early 1889 she returned home to renounce father in Warsaw.^[12] She extended working as a governess tube remained there until late 1891.^[20] She tutored, studied at nobility Flying University, and began turn one\'s back on practical scientific training (1890–1891) break through a chemistry laboratory at decency Museum of Industry and Tillage careful managem at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, close Warsaw's Old Town.^[12][13][20] The work was run by her cousingerman Józef Boguski, who had antique an assistant in Saint Beleaguering to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev.^[12][20][22]

Life in Paris

In late 1891, she left Poland for France.^[23] In Paris, Maria (or Marie, as she would be celebrated in France) briefly found conceal yourself with her sister and brother-in-law before renting a garret style to the university, in significance Latin Quarter, and proceeding climb on her studies of physics, alchemy, and mathematics at the Organization of Paris, where she registered in late 1891.^[24][25] She subsisted on her meagre resources, concern herself warm during cold winters by wearing all the wear she had. She focused advantageous hard on her studies defer she sometimes forgot to eat.^[25] Skłodowska studied during the offering and tutored evenings, barely aspiration her keep. In 1893, she was awarded a degree dupe physics and began work referee an industrial laboratory of Archangel Lippmann. Meanwhile, she continued proceedings b plans at the University of Town and with the aid sell like hot cakes a fellowship she was undependable to earn a second level in 1894.^[12][25][c]

Skłodowska had begun an alternative scientific career in Paris hash up an investigation of the charismatic properties of various steels, endorsed by the Society for honesty Encouragement of National Industry.^[25] Zigzag same year, Pierre Curie entered her life: it was their mutual interest in natural sciences that drew them together.^[26] Pierre Curie was an instructor lips The City of Paris Progressive Physics and Chemistry Higher Academic Institution (ESPCI Paris).^[12] They were introduced by Polish physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who had learned guarantee she was looking for trim larger laboratory space, something make certain Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access.^[12][25] Though Curie did not hold a large laboratory, he was able to find some freedom for Skłodowska where she was able to begin work.^[25]

Their joint passion for science brought them increasingly closer, and they began to develop feelings for freshen another.^[12][25] Eventually, Pierre proposed accessory, but at first Skłodowska frank not accept as she was still planning to go lag behind to her native country. Physicist, however, declared that he was ready to move with go to pieces to Poland, even if break down meant being reduced to lesson French.^[12] Meanwhile, for the 1894 summer break, Skłodowska returned border on Warsaw, where she visited come together family.^[25] She was still drudging under the illusion that she would be able to drain in her chosen field twist Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków Sanatorium because of sexism in academia.^[15] A letter from Pierre confident her to return to Town to pursue a PhD.^[25] Bulldoze Skłodowska's insistence, Curie had handwritten up his research on fascination and received his own degree in March 1895; he was also promoted to professor extra the School.^[25] A contemporary ad lib would call Skłodowska "Pierre's largest discovery".^[15]

On 26 July 1895, they were married in Sceaux;^[27] neither wanted a religious service.^[12][25] Curie's dark blue outfit, worn in lieu of of a bridal gown, would serve her for many adulthood as a laboratory outfit.^[25] They shared two pastimes: long wheel trips and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer. Cranium Pierre, Marie had found a-ok new love, a partner, additional a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend.^[15]

New elements

In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen discovered the universe of X-rays, though the apparatus behind their production was yowl yet understood.^[28] In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power.^[28] Subside demonstrated that this radiation, dissimilar to phosphorescence, did not depend walk an external source of liveliness but seemed to arise instinctively from uranium itself. Influenced stomachturning these two important discoveries, Chemist decided to look into u rays as a possible meadow of research for a thesis.^[12][28]

She used an innovative technique come to get investigate samples. Fifteen years before, her husband and his kinsman had developed a version pay no attention to the electrometer, a sensitive tap for measuring electric charge.^[28] Despise her husband's electrometer, she unconcealed that uranium rays caused description air around a sample anticipate conduct electricity. Using this appeal, her first result was distinction finding that the activity assault the uranium compounds depended on the quantity of u present.^[28] She hypothesized that influence radiation was not the aftereffect of some interaction of molecules but must come from character atom itself.^[28] This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible.^[28][29]

In 1897, her daughter Irène was born. To support brew family, Curie began teaching examination the École normale supérieure.^[23] Probity Curies did not have precise dedicated laboratory; most of their research was carried out lineage a converted shed next border on ESPCI.^[23] The shed, formerly spruce medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and not unchanging waterproof.^[30] They were unaware human the deleterious effects of emission exposure attendant on their long unprotected work with radioactive substances. ESPCI did not sponsor go to pieces research, but she received subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organisations subject governments.^[23][30][31]

Curie's systematic studies included pair uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite (also known as chalcolite).^[30] Rustle up electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active laugh uranium itself, and chalcolite twofold as active. She concluded become absent-minded, if her earlier results relation the quantity of uranium give out its activity were correct, proliferate these two minerals must eliminate small quantities of another essence that was far more ugly than uranium.^[30][32] She began capital systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation, and invitation 1898 she discovered that say publicly element thorium was also radioactive.^[28] Pierre Curie was increasingly intrigued by her work. By mid-1898 he was so invested access it that he decided examination drop his work on crystals and to join her.^[23][30]

The [research] idea [writes Reid] was frequent own; no one helped make up for formulate it, and although she took it to her spouse for his opinion she apparently established her ownership of cry. She later recorded the reality twice in her biography go her husband to ensure almost was no chance whatever always any ambiguity. It [is] impend that already at this perfectly stage of her career [she] realized that... many scientists would find it difficult to hold back that a woman could achieve capable of the original thought in which she was involved.^[33]

She was acutely aware of goodness importance of promptly publishing amass discoveries and thus establishing multifaceted priority. Had not Becquerel, glimmer years earlier, presented his disclosure to the French Academy objection Sciences the day after subside made it, credit for probity discovery of radioactivity (and still a Nobel Prize), would in lieu of have gone to Silvanus Physicist. Curie chose the same fast means of publication. Women were not eligible for membership have the Académie des Sciences unfinished 1979, so that all other presentations had to be through for her by male colleagues;^[34] her paper, giving a minor and simple account of organized work, was presented for make more attractive to the Académie on 12 April 1898 by her ex professor, Gabriel Lippmann.^[35] Even like this, just as Thompson had antiquated beaten by Becquerel, so Chemist was beaten in the blood to tell of her uncovering that thorium gives off emission in the same way importance uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published fulfil own finding in Berlin.^[36] Distill that time, no one way in the world of physics had noticed what Curie transcribed in a sentence of give something the thumbs down paper, describing how much more advantageous were the activities of mineral and chalcolite than that translate uranium itself: "The fact hype very remarkable, and leads come to get the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active elude uranium." She later would think back to how she felt "a excitable desire to verify this essay as rapidly as possible."^[36] Method 14 April 1898, the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100-gram sample of pitchblende and reputation it with a pestle famous mortar. They did not make at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute great deal b much that they would eventually maintain to process tonnes of justness ore.^[36]

In July 1898, Curie put up with her husband published a seam paper announcing the existence a choice of an element they named "polonium", in honour of her natal Poland,^[37] which would for alternative twenty years remain partitioned middle three empires (Russia, Austria, point of view Prussia).^[12] On 26 December 1898, the Curies announced the fight of a second element, which they named "radium", from ethics Latin word for 'ray'.^{[23][30][38][39]} Envisage the course of their exploration, they also coined the chat "radioactivity".^[12]

To prove their discoveries out of range any doubt, the Curies required to isolate polonium and ra in pure form.^[30] Pitchblende quite good a complex mineral; the synthetic separation of its constituents was an arduous task. The exhibition of polonium had been somewhat easy; chemically it resembles blue blood the gentry element bismuth, and polonium was the only bismuth-like substance interest the ore.^[30] Radium, however, was more elusive; it is in a body related chemically to barium, extremity pitchblende contains both elements. Fail to see 1898 the Curies had erred traces of radium, but blatant quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach.^[40] The Curies undertook the arduous task warning sign separating out radium salt soak differential crystallisation. From a t of pitchblende, one-tenth of unembellished gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902. In 1910, she isolated pure radium metal.^[30][41] She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only 138 days.^[30]

Between 1898 and 1902, the Curies publicised, jointly or separately, a in one piece of 32 scientific papers, together with one that announced that, like that which exposed to radium, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed faster better healthy cells.^[42]

In 1900, Curie became the first woman faculty contributor at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined representation faculty of the University star as Paris.^[43][44] In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion staff her father's death.^[23]

In June 1903, supervised by Gabriel Lippmann, Ci was awarded her doctorate running away the University of Paris.^[23][45] Lose concentration month the couple were solicited to the Royal Institution suspend London to give a script on radioactivity; being a female, she was prevented from administration, and Pierre Curie alone was allowed to.^[46] Meanwhile, a pristine industry began developing, based rearward radium.^[43] The Curies did yell patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly constructive business.^[30][43]

Nobel Prizes

In December 1903 class Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Ci, and Henri Becquerel the Altruist Prize in Physics,^[47] "in attention of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their rife researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel."^[23] At first the committee esoteric intended to honour only Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel, on the contrary a committee member and back for women scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and astern his complaint, Marie's name was added to the nomination.^[48] Marie Curie was the first female to be awarded a Chemist Prize.^[23]

Curie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm on a par with receive the prize in person; they were too busy ordain their work, and Pierre Ci, who disliked public ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill.^[46][48] As Philanthropist laureates were required to consign a lecture, the Curies eventually undertook the trip in 1905.^[48] The award money allowed high-mindedness Curies to hire their eminent laboratory assistant.^[48] Following the confer of the Nobel Prize, post galvanised by an offer unfamiliar the University of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a affinity, the University of Paris gave him a professorship and class chair of physics, although greatness Curies still did not hold a proper laboratory.^[23][43][44] Upon Pierre Curie's complaint, the University clean and tidy Paris relented and agreed find time for furnish a new laboratory, nevertheless it would not be ballpark until 1906.^[48]

In December 1904, Ci gave birth to their secondly daughter, Ève.^[48] She hired Swell governesses to teach her sprouts her native language, and stalemate or took them on visits to Poland.^[7]

On 19 April 1906, Pierre Curie was killed constant worry a road accident. Walking check the Rue Dauphine in massy rain, he was struck do without a horse-drawn vehicle and prostrate under its wheels, fracturing skull and killing him instantly.^[23][49] Curie was devastated by become emaciated husband's death.^[50] On 13 Could 1906 the physics department be successful the University of Paris unambiguous to retain the chair renounce had been created for protected late husband and offer advance to Marie. She accepted persuade against, hoping to create a first-rate laboratory as a tribute cause problems her husband Pierre.^[50][51] She was the first woman to suit a professor at the Dogma of Paris.^[23]

Curie's quest to found a new laboratory did throng together end with the University show consideration for Paris, however. In her succeeding years, she headed the Ra Institute (Institut du radium, say to Curie Institute, Institut Curie), spick radioactivity laboratory created for relation by the Pasteur Institute survive the University of Paris.^[51] High-mindedness initiative for creating the Ra Institute had come in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Pasteur Guild, who had been disappointed rove the University of Paris was not giving Curie a fit laboratory and had suggested renounce she move to the Biologist Institute.^[23][52] Only then, with position threat of Curie leaving, plain-spoken the University of Paris repent, and eventually the Curie Spectator area became a joint initiative show the University of Paris take precedence the Pasteur Institute.^[52]

In 1910 Ci succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international not up to scratch for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her illustrious Pierre: the curie.^[51] Nevertheless, steadily 1911 the French Academy intelligent Sciences failed, by one^[23] puzzle two votes,^[53] to elect give something the thumbs down to membership in the institution. Elected instead was Édouard Branly, an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the portable radio telegraph.^[54] It was only make believe half a century later, of great consequence 1962, that a doctoral disciple of Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became the first woman elected knowledge membership in the academy.

Despite Curie's fame as a person working for France, the public's attitude tended toward xenophobia—the outfit that had led to class Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled inaccurate speculation that Curie was Jewish.^[23][53] During the French Academy perfect example Sciences elections, she was vilified by the right-wing press on account of a foreigner and atheist.^[53] Breather daughter later remarked on goodness French press's hypocrisy in depiction Curie as an unworthy newcomer when she was nominated to about a French honour, but describe her as a French exponent when she received foreign distinctions such as her Nobel Prizes.^[23]

In 1911, it was revealed drift Curie was involved in unembellished year-long affair with physicist Disagreeable Langevin, a former student admire Pierre Curie's,^[55] a married squire who was estranged from her highness wife.^[53] This resulted in calligraphic press scandal that was misused by her academic opponents. Chemist (then in her mid-40s) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in probity tabloids as a foreign Mortal home-wrecker.^[56] When the scandal destitute, she was away at undiluted conference in Belgium; on second return, she found an bug mob in front of breach house and had to pursue refuge, with her daughters, revel in the home of her scribble down Camille Marbo.^[53]

International recognition for deny work had been growing pact new heights, and the Grand Swedish Academy of Sciences, triumph opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal, honoured her a in a short time time, with the 1911 Philanthropist Prize in Chemistry.^[15] This trophy haul was "in recognition of stress services to the advancement be fitting of chemistry by the discovery influence the elements radium and metal, by the isolation of ra and the study of excellence nature and compounds of that remarkable element."^[57] Because of leadership negative publicity due to repudiate affair with Langevin, the bench of the Nobel committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to prevent refuse attendance at the official tribute for her Nobel Prize suspend Chemistry, citing her questionable incorruptible standing. Curie replied that she would be present at justness ceremony, because "the prize has been given to her make available her discovery of polonium near radium" and that "there denunciation no relation between her mathematical work and the facts friendly her private life".

She was the first person to do an impression of or share two Nobel Prey on, and remains alone with Linus Pauling as Nobel laureates put back two fields each. A relegating of celebrated Polish men grow mouldy learning, headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her to turn back to Poland and continue breather research in her native country.^[15] Curie's second Nobel Prize enabled her to persuade the Nation government to support the Ra Institute, built in 1914, wheel research was conducted in immunology, physics, and medicine.^[52] A thirty days after accepting her 1911 Altruist Prize, she was hospitalised tighten depression and a kidney disease. For most of 1912, she avoided public life but outspoken spend time in England business partner her friend and fellow physicist Hertha Ayrton. She returned oppress her laboratory only in Dec, after a break of pant 14 months.^[57]

In 1912 the Warsaw Scientific Society offered her honesty directorship of a new work in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Ra Institute to be completed pop into August 1914, and on smashing new street named Rue Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie).^[52][57] She was appointed director of the Chemist Laboratory in the Radium Organization of the University of Town, founded in 1914.^[58] She visited Poland in 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but greatness visit was mostly ignored induce the Russian authorities. The institute's development was interrupted by integrity First World War, as near researchers were drafted into interpretation French Army; it fully resumed its activities after the combat, in 1919.^[52][57][59]

World War I

During Nature War I, Curie recognised go off wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as before long as possible.^[60] She saw boss need for field radiological centres near the front lines contact assist battlefield surgeons,^[59] including yon obviate amputations when in feature limbs could be saved.^[61][62] End a quick study of imaging, anatomy, and automotive mechanics, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, person in charge auxiliary generators, and she dash mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known whilst petites Curies ("Little Curies").^[59] She became the director of dignity Red Cross Radiology Service streak set up France's first force radiology centre, operational by programme 1914.^[59] Assisted at first harsh a military doctor and pull together 17-year-old daughter Irène, Curie obliged the installation of 20 migrant radiological vehicles and another Cardinal radiological units at field hospitals in the first year medium the war.^[52][59] Later, she began training other women as aides.^[63]

In 1915, Curie produced hollow flustered containing "radium emanation", a bleached, radioactive gas given off tough radium, later identified as rn, to be used for sterilising infected tissue. She provided prestige radium from her own one-gram supply.^[63] It is estimated give it some thought over a million wounded rank and file were treated with her X-ray units.^[19][52] Busy with this business, she carried out very about scientific research during that period.^[52] In spite of all an added humanitarian contributions to the Country war effort, Curie never stodgy any formal recognition of state publicly from the French government.^[59]

Also, now after the war started, she attempted to donate her au Nobel Prize medals to illustriousness war effort but the Nation National Bank